From: owner-ammf-digest@smoe.org (alt.music.moxy-fruvous digest) To: ammf-digest@smoe.org Subject: alt.music.moxy-fruvous digest V14 #4572 Reply-To: ammf@fruvous.com Sender: owner-ammf-digest@smoe.org Errors-To: owner-ammf-digest@smoe.org Precedence: bulk alt.music.moxy-fruvous digest Saturday, July 18 2020 Volume 14 : Number 4572 Today's Subjects: ----------------- You Donāt Have to be Alone ["**Cindy**" <**Cindy**@cbdonly.guru>] Discover the Forgotten Power of Plants ["The Lost Book Of Remedies" ] Modern shipping container homes ["Bitcoins" ] Longest Living Doctor Unlocks Fastest Way to Burn Fat ["GlucaFix" Subject: You Donāt Have to be Alone You Donbt Have to be Alone http://cbdonly.guru/dYDcpyqq1AaHmWUKneQFZp3ti4o46jYTYObtVBIJAS46Hg http://cbdonly.guru/92NK1LcKTC2ZOhn8GugCsfO2e9Q_RL5mYL4zpyzzhTdKKg If not restrained, rails would lengthen in hot weather and shrink in cold weather. To provide this restraint, the rail is prevented from moving in relation to the sleeper by use of clips or anchors. Attention needs to be paid to compacting the ballast effectively, including under, between, and at the ends of the sleepers, to prevent the sleepers from moving. Anchors are more common for wooden sleepers, whereas most concrete or steel sleepers are fastened to the rail by special clips that resist longitudinal movement of the rail. There is no theoretical limit to how long a welded rail can be. However, if longitudinal and lateral restraint are insufficient, the track could become distorted in hot weather and cause a derailment. Distortion due to heat expansion is known in North America as sun kink, and elsewhere as buckling. In extreme hot weather special inspections are required to monitor sections of track known to be problematic. In North American practice extreme temperature conditions will trigger slow orders to allow for crews to react to buckling or "sun kinks" if encountered. After new segments of rail are laid, or defective rails replaced (welded-in), the rails can be artificially stressed if the temperature of the rail during laying is cooler than what is desired. The stressing process involves either heating the rails, causing them to expand, or stretching the rails with hydraulic equipment. They are then fastened (clipped) to the sleepers in their expanded form. This process ensures that the rail will not expand much further in subsequent hot weather. In cold weather the rails try to contract, but because they are firmly fastened, cannot do so. In effect, stressed rails are a bit like a piece of stretched elastic firmly fastened down. In extremely cold weather, rails are heated to prevent "pull aparts". CWR is laid (including fastening) at a temperature roughly midway between the extremes experienced at that location. (This is known as the "rail neutral temperature".) This installation procedure is intended to prevent tracks from buckling in summer heat or pulling apart in the winter cold. In North America, because broken rails (known as a pull-apart) are typically detected by interruption of the current in the signaling system, they are seen as less of a potential hazard than undetected heat kinks. An expansion joint on the Cornish Main Line, England Joints are used in the continuous welded rail when necessary, usually for signal circuit gaps. Instead of a joint that passes straight across the rail, the two rail ends are sometimes cut at an angle to give a smoother transition. In extreme cases, such as at the end of long bridges, a breather switch (referred to in North America and Britain as an expansion joint) gives a smooth path for the wheels while allowing the end of one rail to expand relative to the next rail. ------------------------------ Date: Sat, 18 Jul 2020 07:23:12 -0400 From: "The Lost Book Of Remedies" Subject: Discover the Forgotten Power of Plants Discover the Forgotten Power of Plants http://onlyhappye.bid/YhWONHh1wGTeFbFiqcRJ5Ct7vhjfHjO-0ECfsmgRmc8WJpDX http://onlyhappye.bid/3R4U0zSjTqglD14CztPPMs2N4_MDGeXm_UoqEjf9ueOymtAP Diamond turning is a multi-stage process. Initial stages of machining are carried out using a series of CNC lathes of increasing accuracy. A diamond-tipped lathe tool is used in the final stages of the manufacturing process to achieve sub-nanometer level surface finishes and sub-micrometer form accuracies.[citation needed] The surface finish quality is measured as the peak-to-valley distance of the grooves left by the lathe. The form accuracy is measured as a mean deviation from the ideal target form. Quality of surface finish and form accuracy is monitored throughout the manufacturing process using such equipment as contact and laser profilometers, laser interferometers, optical and electron microscopes. Diamond turning is most often used for making infrared optics, because at longer wavelengths optical performance is less sensitive to surface finish quality, and because many of the materials used are difficult to polish with traditional methods. Temperature control is crucial, because the surface must be accurate on distance scales shorter than the wavelength of light. Temperature changes of a few degrees during machining can alter the form of the surface enough to have an effect. The main spindle may be cooled with a liquid coolant to prevent temperature deviations. The diamonds that are used in the process are incredibly strong in the vertical downward direction but very weak in the upward and sideways directions. The machine tool For best possible quality natural diamonds are used as single-point cutting elements during the final stages of the machining process. A CNC SPDT lathe rests atop a high-quality granite base with micrometer surface finish quality. The granite base is placed on air suspension on a solid foundation, keeping its working surface strictly horizontal. The machine tool components are placed on top of the granite base and can be moved with high degree of accuracy using a high-pressure air cushion or hydraulic suspension. The machined element is attached to an air chuck using negative air pressure and is usually centered manually using a micrometer. The chuck itself is separated from the electric motor that spins it by another air suspension. The cutting tool is moved with sub-micron precision by a combination of electric motors and piezoelectric actuators. As with other CNC machines, the motion of the tool is controlled by a list of coordinates generated by a computer. Typically, the part to be created is first described using a CAD model, then converted to G-code using a CAM program, and the G-code is then executed by the machine control computer to move the cutting tool.[citation needed] The final surface is achieved with a series of cutting passes of decreasing depth. Alternative methods of diamond machining in practice also include diamond fly cutting and diamond milling. Diamond fly cutting can be used to generate diffraction gratings and other linear patterns with appropriately contoured diamond shapes. Diamond milling can be used to generate aspheric lens arrays by annulus cutting methods with a spherical diamond tool. Materials Diamond turning is specifically useful when cutting materials that are viable as infrared optical components and certain non-linear optical components such as potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP). KDP is a perfect material in application for diamond turning, because the material is very desirable for its optical modulating properties, yet it is impossible to make optics from this material using conventional methods. KDP is water-soluble, so conventional grinding and polishing techniques are not effective in producing optics. Diamond turning works well to produce optics from KDP. Generally, diamond turning is restricted to certain materials. Materials that are readily machinable includ ------------------------------ Date: Sat, 18 Jul 2020 06:55:24 -0400 From: "Want Free HD TV?" Subject: Stop wasting money on tv subscriptions Stop wasting money on tv subscriptions http://sleepcooll.co/diZUENHH6vJRkWZCgp9lZ5ETBFlU18n-_txeCu-Ij8yP9OA http://sleepcooll.co/LiHHBE-GvXs9wATLIaq2NGSVBIDO0tCRzLg_vjM81_UGv0Px A lathe may or may not have legs also known as a nugget, which sit on the floor and elevate the lathe bed to a working height. A lathe may be small and sit on a workbench or table, not requiring a stand. Almost all lathes have a bed, which is (almost always) a horizontal beam (although CNC lathes commonly have an inclined or vertical beam for a bed to ensure that swarf, or chips, falls free of the bed). Woodturning lathes specialized for turning large bowls often have no bed or tail stock, merely a free-standing headstock and a cantilevered tool rest. At one end of the bed (almost always the left, as the operator faces the lathe) is a headstock. The headstock contains high-precision spinning bearings. Rotating within the bearings is a horizontal axle, with an axis parallel to the bed, called the spindle. Spindles are often hollow and have exterior threads or an interior Morse taper on the "inboard" (i.e., facing to the right / towards the bed) by which work-holding accessories may be mounted to the spindle. Spindles may also have exterior threads or an interior taper at their "outboard" (i.e., facing away from the bed) end, or may have a hand-wheel or other accessory mechanism on their outboard end. Spindles are powered and impart motion to the workpiece. The spindle is driven either by foot power from a treadle and flywheel or by a belt or gear drive to a power source. In most modern lathes this power source is an integral electric motor, often either in the headstock, to the left of the headstock, or beneath the headstock, concealed in the stand. In addition to the spindle and its bearings, the headstock often contains parts to convert the motor speed into various spindle speeds. Various types of speed-changing mechanism achieve this, from a cone pulley or step pulley, to a cone pulley with back gear (which is essentially a low range, similar in net effect to the two-speed rear of a truck), to an entire gear train similar to that of a manual-shift automotive transmission. Some motors have electronic rheostat-type speed controls, which obviates cone pulleys or gears. The counterpoint to the headstock is the tailstock, sometimes referred to as the loose head, as it can be positioned at any convenient point on the bed by sliding it to the required area. The tail-stock contains a barrel, which does not rotate, but can slide in and out parallel to the axis of the bed and directly in line with the headstock spindle. The barrel is hollow and usually contains a taper to facilitate the gripping of various types of tooling. Its most common uses are to hold a hardened steel center, which is used to support long thin shafts while turning, or to hold drill bits for drilling axial holes in the work piece. Many other uses are possible. Metalworking lathes have a carriage (comprising a saddle and apron) topped with a cross-slide, which is a flat piece that sits crosswise on the bed and can be cranked at right angles to the bed. Sitting atop the cross slide is usually another slide called a compound rest, which provides 2 additional axes of motion, rotary and linear. Atop that sits a toolpost, which holds a cutting tool, which removes material from the workpiece. There may or may not be a leadscrew, which moves the cross-slide along the bed. ------------------------------ Date: Sat, 18 Jul 2020 03:36:55 -0400 From: "American Great Hat" Subject: A Must Have For Trump Supporters and Collectors A Must Have For Trump Supporters and Collectors http://cbdonly.guru/-I9s0CBnCShSj_YTfTS5Z6FYCUJuopk3cS4_JCTWPBxpN9yQ http://cbdonly.guru/zTXgqARPAKaYmlsTNz2wtXNrLbAEEdoEdFfuWQLAICrOwqII orms of the Royal Navy were undertaken, particularly by Fisher as First Sea Lord from 1904 to 1909. 154 older ships, including 17 battleships, were scrapped to make way for newer vessels. Reforms in training and gunnery were introduced to make good perceived deficiencies, which in part Tirpitz had counted upon to provide his ships with a margin of superiority. More capital ships were stationed in British home waters. A treaty with Japan in 1902 meant that ships could be withdrawn from East Asia, while the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904 meant that Britain could concentrate on guarding Channel waters, including the French coast, while France would protect British interests in the Mediterranean. By 1906 it was considered that Britain's only likely naval enemy was Germany. The German High Seas Fleet, with a member of the Braunschweig class in the lead Five battleships of the Wittelsbach class were constructed from 1899 to 1904 at a cost of 22 million marks per ship. Five ships of the Braunschweig class were built between 1901 and 1906 for the slightly greater 24 million marks each. Technological improvements meant that rapid fire guns could be made larger, so the Braunschweig class had a main armament of 28 cm (11 in) guns. Due to torpedo improvements in range and accuracy, emphasis was placed on a secondary armament of smaller guns to defend against them. The five Deutschland-class battleships constructed between 1903 and 1908 had similar armament as the Braunschweig class, but heavier armour, for the slightly greater sum of 24.5 million marks each. Development of armoured cruisers also continued. FC Subject: Efficient HVAC Units for the LASTNAME House Efficient HVAC Units for the LASTNAME House http://aircools.co/SMl3cNaXXp1ihtvxsRAYJWMJ9c72w4FLEz5NedfUovpHJSg http://aircools.co/WAE9w7DNy_lwao_lNMA3B__ZwA5hPcyTyJPYeOinsm-EuWa5 Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example, the Society of Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining many types of steel. The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most commonly used structural steel in the United States. The JIS also define series of steel grades that are being used extensively in Japan as well as in developing countries. Uses A roll of steel wool Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure, appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as stadiums and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure employ steel for reinforcing. In addition, it sees widespread use in major appliances and cars. Despite growth in usage of aluminium, it is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, nails and screws and other household products and cooking utensils. Other common applications include shipbuilding, pipelines, mining, offshore construction, aerospace, white goods (e.g. washing machines), heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tool and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role). Historical A carbon steel knife Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of knives, razors, swords, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for springs, including those used in clocks and watches. With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods, steel has become easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in some applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight. Carbon fiber is replacing steel in some cost insensitive applications such as sports equipment and high end automobiles. ------------------------------ Date: Sat, 18 Jul 2020 03:28:55 -0400 From: "Warby Parker Partner" Subject: Try 5 pairs of glasses at home for free Try 5 pairs of glasses at home for free http://afterfall.buzz/E7BNY1PYKe6kxCHCVmJfZC6qF3uHnCtFv2tW-LyYb9BPUbxH http://afterfall.buzz/K7rp2C-qqisW1hUJbovWNqpNRFgiKGaldDyg_JSJOmXwMrJk The most difficult distinction to draw is that between light rail and streetcar or tram systems. There is a significant amount of overlap between the technologies, many of the same vehicles can be used for either, and it is common to classify streetcars or trams as a subcategory of light rail rather than as a distinct type of transportation. The two general versions are: The traditional type, where tracks and trains run along the streets and share space with road traffic. Stops tend to be very frequent, but little effort is made to set up special stations. Because space is shared, the tracks are usually visually unobtrusive. A more modern variation, where the trains tend to run along their own right-of-way, separated from road traffic. Stops are generally less frequent, and the vehicles are often boarded from a platform. Tracks are highly visible, and in some cases significant effort is expended to keep traffic away through the use of special signaling, level crossings with gate arms, or even a complete separation with non-level crossings. Higher capacity Sydney's Dulwich Hill Line is mostly situated on segregated tracks along a former heavy rail corridor At the highest degree of separation, it can be difficult to draw the line between light rail and metros. The London Docklands Light Railway would likely not be considered as "light rail" were it not for the contrast between it and the rapid transit London Underground. In Europe and Asia, the term light rail is increasingly used to describe any rapid transit system with a fairly low frequency or short trains compared to heavier mass rapid systems such as the London Underground or Singapore's Mass Rapid Transit. However upon closer inspection, these systems are better classified as light metro or people movers. For instance, Line 1 and Line 3 in Manila are often referred to as "light rail", despite being fully segregated, mostly elevated railways. This phenomenon is quite common in East Asian cities, where elevated metro lines in Shanghai, Wuhan, and Dalian in China; and Jakarta, Greater Jakarta and Palembang in Indonesia are called light rail lines. In North America, such systems are not usually considered light rail. Mixed systems Hong Kong's MTR Light Rail serves the northwest suburbs with unidirectional high floor LRVs. Many systems have mixed characteristics. Indeed, with proper engineering, a rail line could run along a street, then go underground, and then run along an elevated viaduct. For example, the Los Angeles Metro Rail's Gold Line "light rail" has sections that could alternatively be described as a tramway, a light metro, and, in a narrow sense, rapid transit. This is especially common in the United States, where there is not a popularly perceived distinction between these different types of urban rail systems. The development of technology for low-floor and catenary-free trams facilitates construction of such mixed systems with only short and shallow underground sections below critical intersections as the required clearance height can be reduced significantly compared to conventional light rail vehicles ------------------------------ Date: Sat, 18 Jul 2020 06:30:18 -0400 From: "**ReverseMortgageQuiz**" <**ReverseMortgageQuiz**@actions.buzz> Subject: Take this quiz to see if a reverse mortgage is a fit for you Take this quiz to see if a reverse mortgage is a fit for you http://actions.buzz/N8eRpLCA9wXqU7g-nzHF32ImlSf6AbfF-4AAlHjCCJEj4npb http://actions.buzz/zkMisGRpJrBjEJxgtCUf39DFEn-_Eo_mfIZ4FuybUsoHo8Tu Replacing a whole wheel because of a worn contact surface is expensive, so older types of railway wheels were fitted with replaceable steel tires. The tire is a hoop of steel that is fitted around the steel wheel centre. The tire is machined with a shoulder on its outer face to locate it on the wheel centre, and a groove on the inside diameter of the flange face. The inside diameter of the tire is machined to be slightly less than the diameter of the wheel centre on which it is mounted, to give an interference fit. The tire is fitted by heating to a controlled temperature, avoiding overheating. This causes the tire to expand. The wheel centre, usually already mounted on the axle, is lowered into the tire which is flange-side-up. The tire cools, and the retaining ring (a shaped steel bar rolled into a hoop) is fitted into the groove. Hydraulically operated rolls swage the groove down onto the retaining ring. The tire is primarily held in place by its interference fit. The shoulder on the outside and the retaining ring also keep the tire in place if the interference fit is lost. This is most often due to severe drag braking down a gradient, or due to an error in the machining. Removal of a worn tire is by machining out the retaining ring and heating the tire to relax the interference fit. Some steam locomotive wheels had tires bolted through the rim, or with a second smaller shoulder machined on the inside face of the tire. This shoulder was severely limited in size as it had to pass over the wheel centre for assembly. Tires of different designs were fitted to wheels with wooden centers (Mansell wheels in the UK) and to various other types. The use of tires is becoming obsolete. The utilisation of traditional freight wagons was often so low that tires never needed renewal, so it was cheaper to fit a one-piece ("monoblock") wheel. Monoblock wheels are lighter and offer better integrity as there is no tire to come loose. Modern flow-line repair lines are disrupted by the inspection of the wheel centre once the tire is removed, possibly generating extra rectification work, and the need to make each tire fit its allocated wheel centre. Monoblock wheels are now more economical. ------------------------------ Date: Sat, 18 Jul 2020 07:57:22 -0400 From: "Viddyoze" Subject: Whatās stopping you? Whatbs stopping you? http://usneckknife.co/xVt1rm0AXKczd1mZDLIksAdWVmgxyRo_P8T9HFHsavb9axTJ http://usneckknife.co/4ZoILmtUac7MWpQX81pjzg2ew4_E4lCT051bp2_rFFo2iNE In a metalworking lathe, metal is removed from the workpiece using a hardened cutting tool, which is usually fixed to a solid moveable mounting, either a tool-post or a turret, which is then moved against the workpiece using handwheels or computer-controlled motors. These cutting tools come in a wide range of sizes and shapes, depending upon their application. Some common styles are diamond, round, square and triangular. The tool-post is operated by lead-screws that can accurately position the tool in a variety of planes. The tool-post may be driven manually or automatically to produce the roughing and finishing cuts required to turn the workpiece to the desired shape and dimensions, or for cutting threads, worm gears, etc. Cutting fluid may also be pumped to the cutting site to provide cooling, lubrication and clearing of swarf from the workpiece. Some lathes may be operated under control of a computer for mass production of parts (see "Computer numerical control"). Manually controlled metalworking lathes are commonly provided with a variable-ratio gear-train to drive the main lead-screw. This enables different thread pitches to be cut. On some older lathes or more affordable new lathes, the gear trains are changed by swapping gears with various numbers of teeth onto or off of the shafts, while more modern or expensive manually controlled lathes have a quick-change box to provide commonly used ratios by the operation of a lever. CNC lathes use computers and servomechanisms to regulate the rates of movement. On manually controlled lathes, the thread pitches that can be cut are, in some ways, determined by the pitch of the lead-screw: A lathe with a metric lead-screw will readily cut metric threads (including BA), while one with an imperial lead-screw will readily cut imperial-unit-based threads such as BSW or UTS (UNF, UNC). This limitation is not insurmountable, because a 127-tooth gear, called a transposing gear, is used to translate between metric and inch thread pitches. However, this is optional equipment that many lathe owners do not own. It is also a larger change-wheel than the others, and on some lathes may be larger than the change-wheel mounting banjo is capable of mounting. The workpiece may be supported between a pair of points called centres, or it may be bolted to a faceplate or held in a chuck. A chuck has movable jaws that can grip the workpiece securely. There are some effects on material properties when using a metalworking lathe. There are few chemical or physical effects, but there are many mechanical effects, which include residual stress, micro-cracks, work-hardening, and tempering in hardened materials. ------------------------------ Date: Sat, 18 Jul 2020 04:40:47 -0400 From: "Bitcoins" Subject: Modern shipping container homes Modern shipping container homes http://afterfall.buzz/A5xzBufRfugcVlKjTrQvQ5CorD2g3BQ9tj7g98zZ24fbHr9h http://afterfall.buzz/Z7TblVJTvYlFuxOzuQ_LMPjQWo8FP0baDJYmntbMXgi-_sI4 The height of overhead line can create hazards at level crossings, where it may be struck by road vehicles. Warning signs are placed on the approaches, advising drivers of the maximum safe height. The wiring in most countries is too low to allow double stack container trains. The Channel Tunnel has an extended height overhead line to accommodate double-height car and truck transporters. China and India operate lines electrified with extra height wiring and pantographs to allow for double stack container trains. Problems with overhead equipment Overhead lines may be adversely affected by strong winds causing wires to swing. Power storms can knock the power out with lightning strikes on systems with overhead wires, stopping trains following a power surge. During cold or frosty weather, ice may coat overhead lines. This can result in poor electrical contact between the collector and the overhead line, resulting in electrical arcing and power surges. The installation of overhead lines may require reconstruction of bridges to provide safe electrical clearance. Overhead lines, like most electrified systems, require a greater capital expenditure when building the system than an equivalent non-electric system. While a conventional rail line requires only the grade, ballast, ties and rails, an overhead system also requires a complex system of support structures, lines, insulators, power-control systems and power lines, all of which require maintenance. This makes non-electrical systems more attractive in the short term, although electrical systems can pay for themselves eventually. Also, the added construction and maintenance cost-per-mile makes overhead systems less attractive on long-distance railways, such as those found in North America, where the distances between cities are typically far greater than in Europe. Such long lines require enormous investment in overhead line equipment, and major difficulties confront energizing long portions of overhead wire on a permanent basis, especially in areas where energy demand already outstrips supply. Many people consider overhead lines to be "visual pollution", due to the many support structures and complicated system of wires and cables that fill the air. Such considerations have driven the move towards replacing overhead power and communications lines with buried cables where possible. The issue came to a head in the UK with the Great Western main line electrification scheme especially through the Goring Gap. A protest group with their own website has been formed ------------------------------ Date: Fri, 17 Jul 2020 08:12:40 -0400 From: "GlucaFix" Subject: Longest Living Doctor Unlocks Fastest Way to Burn Fat Longest Living Doctor Unlocks Fastest Way to Burn Fat http://glucafix.buzz/_dmxWmQrXyLeoalwurh7Q9ejmCfy-VP361Ie2XSZecVNHKPX http://glucafix.buzz/EL5ikFyOVxi7iJV_-PeLyQ_Mtkt6uQMGpQUD84cFKeL0obkN pal lateral appendage of the vascular plant stem, usually borne above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. The leaves and stem together form the shoot. Leaves are collectively referred to as foliage, as in "autumn foliage". In most leaves, the primary photosynthetic tissue, the palisade mesophyll, is located on the upper side of the blade or lamina of the leaf but in some species, including the mature foliage of Eucalyptus, palisade mesophyll is present on both sides and the leaves are said to be isobilateral. Most leaves are flattened and have distinct upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) surfaces that differ in color, hairiness, the number of stomata (pores that intake and output gases), the amount and structure of epicuticular wax and other features. Leaves are mostly green in color due to the presence of a compound called chlorophyll that is essential for photosynthesis as it absorbs light energy from the sun. A leaf with white patches or edges is called a variegated leaf. Leaves can have many different shapes, sizes, and textures. The broad, flat leaves with complex venation of flowering plants are known as megaphylls and the species that bear them, the majority, as broad-leaved or megaphyllous plants. In the clubmosses, with different evolutionary origins, the leaves are simple (with only a single vein) and are known as microphylls. Some leaves, such as bulb scales, are not above ground. In many aquatic species, the leaves are submerged in water. Succulent plants often have thick juicy leaves, but some leaves are without major photosynthetic function and may be dead at maturity, as in some cataphylls and spines. Furthermore, several kinds of leaf-like structures found in vascular plants are not totally homologous with them. Examples include flattened plant stems called phylloclades and cladodes, and flattened leaf stems called phyllodes which differ from leaves both in their structure and origin. Some structures of non-vasc ------------------------------ Date: Sat, 18 Jul 2020 08:37:49 -0400 From: "Vision 20/20 Protocol" Subject: 20/20 without glasses 20/20 without glasses http://lostinator.guru/v_dXzSGGngzbt_7VWPc64K0NPC8cyo5dEPGjP5vOkxNaUaQk http://lostinator.guru/D-R_KtBCNrxMtKe-CQQkfiYlEci0VVPyF1Sqyo9bJkXpPbse Wood, in the strict sense, is yielded by trees, which increase in diameter by the formation, between the existing wood and the inner bark, of new woody layers which envelop the entire stem, living branches, and roots. This process is known as secondary growth; it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem, and subsequent expansion of the new cells. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Where the differences between the four seasons are distinct, e.g. New Zealand, growth can occur in a discrete annual or seasonal pattern, leading to growth rings; these can usually be most clearly seen on the end of a log, but are also visible on the other surfaces. If the distinctiveness between seasons is annual (as is the case in equatorial regions, e.g. Singapore), these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent. If the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. If there are differences within a growth ring, then the part of a growth ring nearest the center of the tree, and formed early in the growing season when growth is rapid, is usually composed of wider elements. It is usually lighter in color than that near the outer portion of the ring, and is known as earlywood or springwood. The outer portion formed later in the season is then known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are major differences, depending on the kind of wood (see below). If a tree grows all its life in the open and the conditions of soil and site remain unchanged, it will make its most rapid growth in youth, and gradually decline. The annual rings of growth are for many years quite wide, but later they become narrower and narrower. Since each succeeding ring is laid down on the outside of the wood previously formed, it follows that unless a tree materially increases its production of wood from year to year, the rings must necessarily become thinner as the trunk gets wider. As a tree reaches maturity its crown becomes more open and the annual wood production is lessened, thereby reducing still more the width of the growth rings. In the case of forest-grown trees so much depends upon the competition of the trees in their struggle for light and nourishment that periods of rapid and slow growth may alternate. Some trees, such as southern oaks, maintain the same width of ring for hundreds of years. Upon the whole, however, as a tree gets larger in diameter the width of the growth rings decreases. ------------------------------ End of alt.music.moxy-fruvous digest V14 #4572 **********************************************